Module 10 Computers 背景材料

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Module 10 Computers 背景材料

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Tips for Healthy Computer Use
How you use your computer can be a major cause of back, neck and shoulder pain. Poor posture while sitting at the computer, lack of regular breaks and exercise all contribute to the problem. To help prevent back, neck and shoulder injuries when using your computer, here are some simple tips from the Australian Physiotherapy Association.
Get Ready...
Always sit in a good quality, adjustable and comfortable office chair. Pull your chair close to the desk and adjust the seat height so that your elbows, hips and knees are bent at approximately 90 degrees. Your forearms should be parallel to or sloping down toward the desktop. Your feet should rest flat on the floor - use a footrest if necessary.
Adjust the backrest of your chair to support the curve in your lower back and to help keep you upright when typing. Relax your shoulders.
Get Set...
Sit up straight and position your computer screen at a comfortable viewing distance, generally at arm's length. Keep the top of the screen below eye level and directly in front of you. Don't use your screen positioned to one side.
Don't work from documents flat on the desk. Use a document holder set close to the screen at the same distance from your eyes, or prop your work on a folder between the keyboard and screen.
Ensure your screen is easy to see. Eliminate reflections by adjusting and tilting the screen and ensure there are no light sources directly behind it. Adjust the brightness control to suit.
Go Easy on Yourself...
Don't use a notebook computer for extended periods. If this is unavoidable then check the top of the screen is below eye level, and plug in a mouse and a normal size keyboard.
Limit continuous computer use and take a break every 30 minutes to do some neck, wrist and shoulder stretches. Focus on a distant point to give your eyes a break. Get up and walk around every hour. Change your tasks regularly to alter the load on your body.
Learn to touch type so you don't have to bend your head forward searching for the keys. Alternate between mouse and keyboard by varying your inputting tasks. Learn the function keys and short cuts to reduce the amount of mouse use.
Maintain your general fitness. Keep yourself strong, active and flexible. Manage the stresses of work and study with a balance of exercise, relaxation and other stress management approaches.
Take notice of early warnings. If you feel an ache or discomfort in any part of your body, check your posture, take a break and if the pain persists, see a physiotherapist.Why More People Today are Turning
to Notebooks for Their Computer Needs
Computers have become a huge part of most people's lives. E-mail has become an easier and faster way of communication, and the Internet is a great way to get needed information. The computer may be used for anything from you needing it for work, all the way to your kids needing it for school. No matter you use your computer for you can't deny its importance in your life.
The computer has come a long way since it first came out. The computer used to take up a whole room, and now all you need is a little notebook. Gone are the days of needing a desktop. The notebook now makes the desktop computer look big and bulky. You no longer need the monitor, and mouse, and keyboard, and hard drive taking up all that space, all you need is your notebook.
When you are in the market for a new notebook it is best if you do a little research before you buy. You don't want to just rush in and buy the first one you find just to find out later that a different notebook would have fit your needs better. No matter what your needs are, you are sure to find a notebook that fits those needs.
You have a choice in screen size, gigabytes, weight, and brand. You may want to start by narrowing down your brand choices. You can choose between Dell, Gateway, PC, Mac, or HP. You may already have an idea of which brand you would like to work with. You may want to check out two brands to make sure you are getting a good deal and getting what you need.
Next thing you may want to do is talk to someone who specializes in computers. You will want to know what each notebook is capable of. Knowing what your needs are will help the person direct you to the right notebook. It might be wise to talk to more than one person to make sure you have a good idea of what notebook is best for you.
After you know what you want you can start shopping around. You can go to a local computer store and check out what they have, and you can shop online. We suggest that you look around to make sure you get what you are looking for. You may be able to find a better deal if you look on the Internet. You can visit the manufacturers’ site and see if you can bet notebook for less than if you go to the store and get it.
With so many choices available to you just make sure you do a little research. The time you spend researching will pay off when you have a notebook that is exactly what you need.机械计算机的发明人--帕斯卡
1623年6月19日,位于法国中部的克勒蒙菲朗的一个贵族家庭中,伴随着“哇”的一声啼哭,一个小精灵降临人世。自生下了小帕斯卡,家里增添了无限生机和欢乐。帕斯卡的父亲是位数学家,还是一位较有名望的税务统计师。他酷爱数学,深深地体会到数学是一门探索性很强的学科。
小帕斯卡天赋很高,他虽体弱多病,但勤奋好学,兴趣广泛,平时很少外出玩耍,整天如饥似渴地看书学习。
1635年,帕斯卡随父亲迁居巴黎。初秋的巴黎郊外,气候宜人,景色美丽。一天,帕斯卡和父亲到郊外游玩,回到家里,准备稍作休息后一起共进晚餐。这时,帕斯卡好像自言自语,又好像是告诉父亲一件重大事情似地说:“三角形三个内角的总和是两个直角。”父亲为儿子的这一见解惊呆了,儿子的见解意味着一个不平常的发现。这个发现来自一个年仅12岁的少年,做父亲的内心不知有多么激动。父亲挑选了欧几里得的《几何原本》给儿子学时还常为他解答疑难问题,并带帕斯卡参观各种科技展览,参加数学、物理的学术讨论会,鼓励他大胆地发表自己的见解。帕斯卡接触到了不少当时著名的数学家、物理学家、机械师……他领略到了数学的奥秘,眼界大开,学识上大有进步。
1639年,刚满16岁的帕斯卡对圆锥曲线等问题进行了大量的研究,掌握了圆锥曲线的共性, 1640年《圆锥曲线论》一书出版,人们把他的这一伟大贡献誉为“阿波罗尼斯之后的二千年的巨大进步。”从此,帕斯卡英名传遍欧洲。
帕斯卡的父亲,作为一名数学家和税务统计师,每天要解答各方面提出的疑难问题,在一旁的帕斯卡看到父亲整天苦于统计大量的数据,便产生了强烈的愿望,要造一个理想的计算工具,来解脱父亲的辛劳。
以前的计算工具和计算方法如笔算、算表、算图等速度慢,精度低,远远不能满足当时统计工作的需要。1642年,19岁的帕斯卡决心研制一种新的计算工具。帕斯卡研究了机器运转的各种传动机构,又走访听取了一些著名工匠的意见,对自己设计的计算机图纸反复推敲,不断试验,不断改进,最后定样。他根据数的进位制(十进位制)想到了采用齿轮来表示各个数位上的数字,通过齿轮的比来解决进位问题。低位的齿轮每转动10圈,高位上的齿轮只转动1圈。这样采用一组水平齿轮和一组垂直齿轮相互啮合转动,解决计算和自动进位,组成了一台计算机。
帕斯卡于1642年设计出了计算机的图纸,连外壳和齿轮用什么样的金属材料都作了认真的选择,同年造出了一台计算机。这是世界上第一台齿轮式计算机。
帕斯卡的这台计算机可以计算到8位数字,表示数字的齿轮共16个,每个齿轮均分成10个齿,每个齿表示0~9中的一个数,并按大小排列。8个齿轮在上面组成垂直齿轮组,从左到右构成8位读数,分别表示个位数、十位数、百位数……千万位数;另外8个齿轮在下面组成水平齿轮组,从左到右可以进行8位数的加减。
帕斯卡发明的钟表式齿轮计算机,是机械式计算机的初级阶段。但这台计算机的功能还很差,做乘法时必须用连加的方法;做除法时,也只能用连减的方法,而且这台机器需用一个小钥匙拨动一下方能计算,每次计算结束,都必须复原到零位以后,方可重新计算,很不方便。在计算过程中它又常发生故障。但是帕斯卡计算机的发明对以后计算机的发展具有深远的影响。
6年后,帕斯卡对自己发明的计算机提出了专利申请,1649年获得专利权。当他的计算机在卢森堡宫展出时,成千上万的人被吸引住了。帕斯卡计算机的发明是人类在计算工具上的新突破。它发明的意义远远超出了这台计算机本身的使用价值,它告诉人们用纯机械装置可代替人的思维和记忆。从此在欧洲兴起了“大家来造思维工具”的热潮。至今还有很多游人和学者慕名前往卢森堡宫参观这一历史上的珍品——世界上第一台齿轮式计算机。
目前,帕斯卡发明制造的齿轮式计算机还保留有6台。其中5台在巴黎艺术和手工艺品博物馆内,一台保存在德累斯顿的物理教学沙龙。这些计算机长约30~侧厘米,宽15厘米,高10厘米,是科学史上难得的珍品。计算机编年简史-史前时代
1623年:德国科学家契克卡德(W. Schickard)制造了人类有史以来第一台机械计算机,这台机器能够进行六位数的加减乘除运算。
1642年:法国科学家帕斯卡(B.Pascal)发明了著名的帕斯卡机械计算机,首次确立了计算机器的概念。
1674年:莱布尼茨改进了帕斯卡的计算机,使之成为一种能够进行连续运算的机器,并且提出了“二进制”数的概念。(据说这个概念来源于中国的八卦)
1725年:法国纺织机械师布乔(B. Bouchon)发明了“穿孔纸带”的构想。
1805年: 法国机械师杰卡德(J. Jacquard)根据布乔“穿孔纸带”的构想完成了“自动提花编织机”的设计制作,在后来电子计算机开始发展的最初几年中,在多款著名计算机中我们均能找到自动提花机的身影。
1822年:英国科学家巴贝奇(C.Babbage)制造出了第一台差分机, 它可以处理3个不同的5位 数,计算精度达到6位小数。
1834年:巴贝奇提出了分析机的概念,机器共分为三个部分:堆栈,运算器,控制器。他的助手, 英国著名诗人拜伦的独生女阿达 奥古斯塔(Ada Augusta)为分析机编制了人类历史上第一批计算机程序。
阿达和巴贝奇为计算机的发展创造了不朽的功勋,他们对计算机的预见起码超前了一个世纪以上,正是他们的辛勤努力,为后来计算机的出现奠定了坚实的基础。
1847年:英国数学家布尔(G.Boole)发表著作《逻辑的数学分析》。
1852年: 阿达 奥古斯塔(Ada Augusta)去世,年仅36岁。
1854年:布尔发表《思维规律的研究 逻辑与概率的数学理论基础》,并综合自己的另一篇文章《逻辑的数学分析》,从而创立了一门全新的学科-布尔代数,为百年后出现的数字计算机的开关电路设计提供了重要的数学方法和理论基础。
1868年:美国新闻工作者克里斯托夫 肖尔斯(C.Sholes)发明了沿用至今的QWERTY键盘。
1871年:为计算机事业贡献了毕生精力的巴贝奇(C.Babbage)去世。他与阿达所设想的分析机最终也未能问世,但是他们却为后人留下了一份宝贵的遗产,那就是面对困难不屈不挠的精神,以及那数十种设计方案和程序。
1873年:美国人鲍德温(F. Baldwin)利用自己过去发明的齿数可变齿轮制造了第一台手摇式计算机。
1886年:美国人Dorr E. Felt (1862-1930), 制造了第一台用按键操作的计算器。
1890年:美国在第12次人口普查中使用了由统计学家霍列瑞斯(H.Hollerith)博士发明的制表机,从而完成了人类历史上第一次大规模数据处理。此后霍列瑞斯根据自己的发明成立了自己的制表机公司,并最终演变成为IBM ( http: / / www.21cnjy.com / " \o "欢迎登陆21世纪教育网" \t "_blank )公司。
1891年:利兰 斯坦福与其妻子一道在靠近帕洛 阿尔托(Palo Alto)的地方开办了面积达8,000英亩的斯坦福大学,从而为日后硅谷的诞生埋下了伏笔。
1893年:德国人施泰格尔研制出一种名为“大富豪”的计算机,该计算机是在手摇式计算机的基础上改进而来,并依靠良好的运算速度和可靠性而占领了当时的市场 ( http: / / www.21cnjy.com / " \o "欢迎登陆21世纪教育网" \t "_blank ),直到1914年第一次世界大战爆发之前,这种“大富豪”计算机一直畅销不衰。
1895年: 英国青年工程师弗莱明(J.Fleming)通过“爱迪生效应”发明了人类第一只电子管。

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