资源简介

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EXTERNALITIES AND GOVERNMENT POLICY
C h a p t e r 3
Externalities
Externalities are costs or benefits of market transactions not reflected in prices.
A third party is affected by production or consumption
Benefits or costs to the third party not considered by buyers or sellers
Types of Externalities
Negative externalities – costs to third parties other than buyers or sellers not reflected in the market price
Damage by industrial pollution to people and property
Positive externalities – benefits to third parties other than buyers or sellers not reflected in prices
Fire prevention, such as smoke alarms and fireproofing
Pecuniary externalities – effects of increases or decreases in the price of a good on existing customers as a result of changes in the demand or supply of a good
Negative Externalities
Marginal external cost (MEC) – extra cost to third parties resulting from production of another unit of a good or service
MEC part of the marginal social cost (MSC) of making a good available
MEC is not reflected in the price of the good
Producers base decisions on marginal private cost (MPC)
Negative Externalities
Positive Externalities
In a positive externality, prices do not fully equal the marginal social benefit (MSB) of a good or service.
Marginal external benefit (MEB) – benefit of additional output accruing to parties other than buyers and sellers of the good
Consumers base decisions on marginal private benefit (MPB)
Positive Externalities
MEB Declines with Annual Output
Internalization of Externalities
Internalization of an externality – marginal private benefit or cost of goods and services are adjusted so that users consider the actual marginal social benefit or cost of their decisions
Negative externality: MEC is added to MPC
Positive externality: MEB is added to MPB
Corrective tax – designed to adjust MPC of a good or service in such a way as to internalize the externality; must equal MEC per unit
Corrective Tax
Other Means of Internalizing Externalities
General theory of second best – states that when two opposing factors contribute to efficiency losses, they can offset one another’s distortions
Economists treat each problem on an ad hoc basis to determine if there are any “second best” problems present.
Corrective subsidy – payment made by government to either buyers or sellers so that the price paid by consumers is reduced
Second Best Efficient Solution
Corrective Subsidy
The Coase Theorem
Governments, by merely establishing rights to use resources, can internalize externalities when transactions costs of bargaining are zero.
Users initially granted the right are better off, because they own a valuable property right that can either be used or exchanged. The assignment of the right affects the distribution of income between two parties using the resource.
The Coase Theorem
The Coase Theorem
Coase Theorem & Pollution Rights
Pollution rights – transferable permits to emit a certain amount of particular wastes into the atmosphere or water per year
Firms purchasing the rights are free to sell them to other firms.
Regulatory authorities can therefore strictly control emissions by issuing a fixed number of permits.
Coase Theorem & Pollution Rights
Efficient Amount of Abatement
Emissions Standards
Standards that limit the amount of pollutants that can be emitted into the air or water
Limits on auto emissions established by the 1970 Amendments to the Clean Air Act
Differ from corrective taxes in that they do not charge for emissions damages if the amounts emitted are less than legally established standards
Reduced emissions result in reduction of pollution or pollution abatement.
Flexible standards more likely to achieve an efficient outcome that uniform standards
Adjust for differences in MSB and MEC among firms and regions
Differences in MSB of Emissions
Differences in MSB of Emissions
Differences in MEC of Emissions
Differences in MEC of Emissions
Command-and-Control Policies
A system of rules established by government authorities requiring all emitters to meet strict emissions standards for sources of pollution
Requires use of specific pollution control devices
Results have been:
Court challenges, causing delayed implementation
High compliance costs
Heavy political opposition
Are difficult to enforce
Markets for Pollution Rights: Sulfur Dioxide
The EPA issues marketable rights to emit sulfur dioxides to electric power-generating companies.
New plants must buy allowances from existing owners of permits or from annual EPA allowance auctions.
Violators must pay a fine and reduce emissions the following year by the amount exceeded.
Benefits of Markets for Pollution Rights
Firms must compare cost of emissions with the price they could get for their pollution rights.
Cost of polluting a factor in profit calculation, causing pressure from stockholders to reduce pollution
Trading of rights will allow companies to meet EPA requirements at lower costs
Encourages electric power companies to develop new technology for reducing emissions
Can add to profits by selling the therefore unused pollution rights
Program has been effective in reducing emissions.
Variation in Allowance Prices
Innovations in EPA Policies
Emissions offset policy: new firms can enter an area in which standards are already met or exceeded, provided they pay other firms to reduce their pollutants in an amount equal to or greater than that to be generated by the new firms
Encourages new business in areas where emissions are already met or exceeded
The bubble: the new firm is allowed to exceed emissions standards for one type of pollutant if it compensates by reducing emissions by more than the required standard for another
Banking emissions: firms that exceed current standards are given credits allowing them to fall short of the standards at a point in the future; may sell the credits
Benefits and Costs of Environmental Protection
In 1990, the EPA estimated that the benefits of the Clean Air Act were nearly 50 times the costs.
Implies that, in the aggregate, clean air programs have resulted in net gains, improved efficiency
It is argued, however, that disaggregating programs provides a better picture of specific clean air programs on efficiency.
In which case, programs targeting leaded gasoline specifically account for 90 percent of the benefits.
Water pollution policy has been command-and-control; effects have apparently been modest.

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