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(共29张PPT)
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Chapter 9
Sociocultural and Environmental Impacts of Tourism
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Chapter 9
Sociocultural & Environmental
Impacts of Tourism
Sociocultural Benefits
Sociocultural Costs
Environmental Benefits
Environmental Costs
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Sociocultural Benefits
Promotion of cross-cultural understanding
View that tourism functions as force for world peace
(i.e. ‘two-track diplomacy’)
Belief that personal contacts between tourists & residents combat stereotypes
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Sociocultural Benefits
Promotion of cross-cultural understanding
Tourism stimulates preservation or restoration
of historic buildings & sites (‘pull factor’)
Benefits for residents:
generation of revenue
appreciation of own heritage
preservation or revitalisation of ceremonies & traditions
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Sociocultural Benefits
Promoting social wellbeing and stability
Tourism promotes economic development = increased political stability & prosperity of destination
Need to maintain tourist arrivals provides incentive for host community to minimise crime & offer other MDC services (e.g. police, health care): residents also benefit
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Sociocultural Costs
Commodification
PHASE 1:
Authentic culture is genuinely shared with travellers; no commercial exchange (may be given genuine artifacts)
COMMODIFICATION PROCESS
PHASE 2:
Authentic culture is made available to tourists for a small fee (sale of artifacts) (= commercialisation)
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Sociocultural Costs
Commodification
COMMODIFICATION PROCESS
PHASE 3:
Culture modified to meet tourist expectations & sensitivities (e.g. extra performances, modification of clothing) & market dictates prices
PHASE 4:
Cultural display completely contrived & commercialised (may culminate in prostitution)
( = loss of original culture)
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Sociocultural Costs
Commodification
FRONTSTAGE AND BACKSTAGE:
Coping mechanism for local residents
Frontstage: Explicitly or tacitly recognised spaces within destination are mobilised for tourism purposes (e.g. cultural performances)
Backstage: Areas of destination where personal or intra-group activities occur (e.g. non- commercialised cultural performances).
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Sociocultural Costs
Commodification
Sociocultural stereotypes & sexual imagery are frequently used because of effectiveness in selling an attractive destination image to certain tourist market segments.
PROSTITUTION
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Sociocultural Costs
The relationship between tourism & crime
Tourism lends itself to being a ‘scapegoat’ for other ills in society, since tourism crimes are highly publicised
Tourism growth is usually accompanied by growth in residential population; hence, increases in crime may simply reflect increases in population
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Sociocultural Costs
The demonstration effect revisited
LOCAL PEOPLE TRY TO IMITATE TOURIST LIFESTYLES
Problem: How to distinguish effect of tourism from effect of media
Direct: Tourists locals
Indirect: Tourists local elite locals
Locals may resort to crime to achieve this lifestyle
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Sociocultural Costs
The relationship between tourism & crime
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Sociocultural Costs
Factors contributing to the increased likelihood of sociocultural costs
1st - Extensive inequality in wealth between tourists & residents
2nd - Cultural and behavioural differences between tourists & residents
3rd – Overly intrusive or exclusive contact
Paradox of resentment - locals annoyed at tourists whether they are dispersed or concentrated
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Sociocultural Costs
Factors contributing to the increased likelihood of sociocultural costs
4th - High proportion of tourists relative to local population
6th – Dependency of local economy on tourism
5th - Rapid growth of tourism
7th – Different expectations with respect to authenticity
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Sociocultural Costs
Factors contributing to the increased likelihood of sociocultural costs
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Sociocultural Costs
Resident reactions
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Sociocultural Costs
Resident reactions
Treatment of community as homogeneous entity
No empirical research done on psychographic differentiation of resident attitudes towards tourists
Reactive rather than pro-active community
response
CRITICISM OF IRRIDEX MODEL
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Environmental Benefits
Incentive to protect natural environments
Incentive to rehabilitate modified environments
Provide funds to manage & expand protected areas
Some types of tourists assist with habitat maintenance & enhancement
(con’d)
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Environmental Benefits
Tourists may serve as environmental watchdogs
Exposure to some types of tourism fosters environmentalism within local community (indirect benefit)
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Environmental Costs
Environmental impact sequence
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Environmental Costs
‘Permanent’ environmental restructuring
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Environmental Costs
Generation of waste residual
STAGE A - STRESSOR ACTIVITY
Production of sewage
STAGE B - ENVIRONMENTAL STRESS
Discharge of untreated wastes into ocean
STAGE C - ENVIRONMENTAL RESPONSE
Water contamination
Loss of aesthetic appeal = harming/killing of marine life
STAGE D - HUMAN RESPONSES TO STAGE C
Reduced visitation
Increased regulation/monitoring
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Environmental Costs
Climate change
major social and environmental issue of the early 21st century
adaptation and mitigation dimensions
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Environmental Costs
Tourist activities
Associated stressor activities in tourism include:
wildlife observation
use of trail bikes & off-road vehicles
hiking & diving
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Environmental Costs
Indirect and induced activities
tourism-related infrastructure (airports, power lines)
Indirect Activities
houses & services for incoming tourism workers
Induced Activities
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Environmental Costs
Ecological footprinting
measurement of resource consumption and waste generation
rapid development of techniques to inform environmental management strategies for companies and destinations
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Environmental Costs
Management implications of sociocultural and environmental impacts
ALL TOURISM-RELATED ACTIVITIES INVOLVE ENVIRONMENTAL STRESS
question is: how much stress is acceptable
how can stress be reduced to an acceptable level
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Environmental Costs
Management implications of sociocultural and environmental impacts
= level of activity which can be accommodated without harming ecosystem
varies from site to site, depending on slope, soil, biodiversity, etc.
can be manipulated by appropriate action
(e.g., site hardening)
RESILIENCE TO STRESS DEPENDS UPON EXISTING SITE CARRYING CAPACITY
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Environmental Costs
Management implications of sociocultural and environmental impacts
STRESS OFTEN EVIDENT ONLY IN THE LONG TERM
even a small incremental change may produce a sudden ‘crash’ (e.g., avalanche effect)

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