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高中英语重点词汇辨析和搭配使用 Lesson 3 名词 C
campaign, movement
两个词都指群众性或社会性的“运动”。
campaign 主要指群众性、政治性的运动，与against/ for搭配，表示赞成或反对，如：a campaign against smoking in public spaces ‖ a nation-wide campaign for equal rights.也可用不定式短语，如：The campaign to fight against piracy is well under way.
movement 表示政治、社会或思想上的“运动”或“群众运动”时作为可数名词，常见的动词搭配有：launch/ initiate/ start/ support/ direct/ oppose/ suppress/ ban a movement。与其搭配的名词或形容词修饰语有：the civil rights/ class/ consumer/ feminist/ women's/ labour/ peace/ reform/ political/ revolutionary/ social movement。 movement 还可后接介词for/ toward表示运动的目标，如：the movement for independence ‖ a movement toward equality；接介词against表示“反对…的运动”，如：a movement against him。也可接动词不定式，如：the movement to abolish slavery。
care
这个词意思较多，可指“照顾”、“照看”，“保重”、“爱护”，“负责处理”等。 care 用作名词时，前面不可加冠词。词组搭配为take care of，如：He is old enough to take care of himself.
词组take care常接含有否定意义的不定式，意为“注意（别），小心（别）”，如：Take care not to drink too much. ‖ She took care to avoid catching cold.还可跟that从句，意思是“确保，务必使”，如：Take care that you don't get involved in the matter.
career, job, occupation, profession, trade, work
这组词都表示“工作”，但工作性质、内容有所差异。
career 通常指打算长期从事并期待不断取得进展的职业，这种职业一般要求有良好的教育或培训，如：His political career began 30 years ago.后接介词in表示从事某一行业，如：His son prepared for a career in law.
job ， work ， occupation 表示“职业”、“工作”时，指一个人的谋生手段。 job 和 work 都是最常见的普通词， job 为可数名词， work 为不可数名词；而 occupation 用于比较正式的场合，如填表格等，如：He has a job as a bus driver. ‖ It was difficult to find work during the depression. ‖ Please state your occupation on the form.
trade 表示需要一定技术的“职业”，通常指体力劳动。而 profession 指需要专业知识和良好教育的“职业”，例如医生、律师、教师等，如：She intends to make teaching her profession.这两个词常跟在介词by后面表示“职业为…”，如：She is an electrician by trade. ‖ He is a lawyer by profession.
case, example, instance
这三个词都可指“事例”。
case 指所研究的问题中一件件具体的“事情”，与 instance 相近，不强调典型性，只是笼统地给出实例，还可用来指医学上的病例和法律上的案例，如：He is an obvious case of somebody whose parents helped him too much.常用动词搭配有：investigate/ work on a case ‖ cite a case。常用形容词搭配有：an isolated/ a rare case ‖ an acute case。常用的介词短语有：in case以防，如果，倘若‖ in case of倘使‖ in a certain case既然这样‖ in any case无论如何‖ in no case绝不。
example 指一个具体的“事例”，用来解释同类事物的普遍性或普通的现象，强调有较强的典型性，如：The world is full of examples of how easily people are misled.常用动词搭配有：cite/ give/ provide an example ‖ set an example for。常用形容词搭配有：a typical/ concrete/ striking/ impressive example。常用短语：for example。
instance 指用来证明某种说法的“例子”，可以是一个特例而非典型的例子。常用搭配有：cite/ give an instance ‖ an isolated/ rare instance。也与介词in/ for连用：for instance例如‖ in the first instance首先。
cause, reason, excuse
这三个词都表示“原因”、“理由”。
cause 表示导致某事或某种结果迟早会发生的原因、起因或根源，较为正式，可兼作可数名词和不可数名词，常与介词of连用，如：Ice on the road was the cause of the accident.在解释缘故或动机时，原因 cause 和理由 reason 意思相近，此时 cause 为不可数名词，后接介词for引导的短语或不定式短语，如：You have no cause for complaint.
reason 用来表示某事为什么会发生，即事情发生的合乎逻辑的“理由”，如：There is no reason to believe she was murdered. reason 不可与because引导的从句连用，应与that或why引导的从句连用，如：There was no reason why you failed the test. ‖ The reason that Hollywood was a natural place for making movies was that the sun shines there every day.
excuse 表示用来推卸责任、逃避责难而提出的“理由”，即“借口”，后接for或动词不定式，如：He kept finding excuses not to go home.试比较下面两句：His reason for leaving early was that his wife was ill. ‖ His excuse for leaving early was that his wife was ill.前一句表示他妻子确实病了，而后一句是指他以妻子的病为借口。
certainty
certainty 是certain的名词，常用短语有：for a certainty确定无疑地，如：I know for a certainty that he went there last night. ‖ to a certainty肯定的，必定的，表示事情发生的必定性，如：He will succeed to a certainty. ‖ with certainty确信，肯定，表示有把握，如：I can't say with certainty what my plans are.
challenge
挑战，质疑。 challenge 作名词时，通常跟介词to连用，表示挑战的对象，其动词搭配有：give/ issue/ send a challenge ‖ accept/ respond to/ take up a challenge。如：The new requirement gives a challenge to every teacher. ‖ He accepted a challenge to duel.
chance, odds, opportunity
这三个词均表示“机会”。
chance 强调侥幸，指意外或偶然性的机会，可跟动词不定式、介词短语of doing sth.或for sth.，作后置定语，如：a chance of getting one's scholarship ‖ a chance for success ‖ I had a chance to see him just because I attended the meeting.词组有：take a chance冒险，碰运气，如：We will take a chance on the weather and have the party outdoors. ‖ a dog's chance微乎其微的机会‖ lose no chance for不放松，抓紧‖ the main chance绝好的机会，最有利的时机。
odds 指机会，可能性（用作复数），如：If you drive a car all your life, the odds are that you'll have an accident at some point.后接介词on/ against，则可表示有利或不利的可能性，如：As far as I can see, the odds are on our side. ‖ There are heavy odds against people succeeding in such a bad economic climate.
opportunity 多指好机会，难得的机会，可表示通过主观努力而获得的机会，常接介词of，如：You should take every opportunity of speaking English.也可跟动词不定式，如：I'd like to take this opportunity to meet all kinds of people.
change
change 改变，变化。常见动词搭配有：bring about/ effect/ cause a change。表达“对…进行改变”，应说make a change in...，而不能用do。形容词搭配有：a drastic/ great/ marked/ radical/ striking/ welcome change等。后接介词in/ of表示“…的变化”，如：a change in method ‖ a change of tone；后接介词from，表达“从…变为…”，如：the change from spring to summer；接介词to/ into，表示“变成…”，如：the change from water into steam；后接介词for，表示转变的方向，如：the change for better。
characteristic, feature, trait
这三个词都表示“特点”、“特征”。
characteristic 指某人或某事物所具有的区别于其他人或其他事物的特征或特点，其反义词为generality，如：The need to communicate is a key characteristic of human society. ‖ What are the characteristics that distinguish the Chinese from the Japanese
feature 指某个地方或某个事物的显著的、引人注目的特征、特点，如：An interesting feature of the city is the old market. ‖ Teamwork is a key feature of the training program.复数 features 指一个人面容的一部分，如鼻、口、眼等，通称面貌、相貌，尤用于面部表情或长相等的描写，如：Mary was fascinated by his strong handsome features.
trait 特指人的个性方面的特点或性情特征，如：Certain personality traits have made her unpopular. ‖ Two traits in the American character are generosity and energy.
charge
短语in charge of和in the charge of意思是不一样的。in charge of负责，管理，如：He is in charge of the accounting department. ‖ in the charge of受…照看，如：Mother puts the baby in the charge of the baby-sitter while she is out.in the charge of也可转换成in sb.'s charge意为“由某人负责／照管”，如：These children are in my charge.这两个词组与动词搭配时，意思也随之发生变化，试比较：You can leave the children in my charge. ‖ You can leave the children in charge of it.
chat, conversation, dialogue, talk
这些词都指正式或非正式的语言交流。
chat 聊天，闲谈。用于两个或更多人之间的轻松、亲密、令人愉快的谈话，强调非正式性。在这种谈话形式中，即使涉及个人的私事，也不会令人紧张和不自在。常用结构为have a chat with sb. about sth.，如：They had an hour's chat about the doings of their mutual friends.常见形容词搭配有：a（n）animated/ friendly/ nice/ pleasant chat。
conversation 是最常用的，常意味着一种放松随便的气氛，是亲密的或令人愉快的交谈或谈话，如：make conversation ‖ This is a party at which the conversation flowed like wine. ‖ a conversation with sb. about sth. ‖ in conversation。
dialogue 较正式，指进行在两人、两国或对立的两方之间的谈话或对话，或用对话体写的文字，如剧中人物的台词或戏剧体散文。后可接介词on，表示谈话的内容；接介词between引出谈话双方，如：It is a year-round dialogue between labor and management.常见的动词搭配有：have/ seek/ resume/ interrupt a dialogue；形容词搭配有：a（n）energetic/ reasonable/ meaningful dialogue。
talk 商谈，谈论，会谈。可以代替 conversation ，作非正式用法时很常用，更强调亲密的关系及谈话的真诚和坦率，如：He feels relieved after their heart-to-heart talk. talk 可作可数名词，如：peace talks和谈。常用介词搭配有：a talk about/ on ‖ a talk with。
church
作可数名词时，意为教会，教堂，如：Is there a church around here 作“礼拜”解时为不可数名词，这时前面不加冠词，如：My father never went to church. ‖ What time does church begin 但是，如果去教堂不是去做礼拜的话，必须加冠词，如：go to the church to see the carving。
circumstances, environment, surroundings
这组词都表示“环境”，但它们所指的词义有所不同。
circumstances 表示影响事件或行为发生、发展的外在客观“情况”、“环境”，尤其指政治经济环境，一般都用复数形式，如：Good weather and other circumstances made our picnic a success. ‖ Grants are awarded according to your financial circumstances.常与介词under/ in搭配，如在词组in/ under no circumstances中表示“无论如何也不”，如：In/ Under no circumstances should we be late for the meeting.（该词组用于句首时常用倒装语序。）
circumstance 偶尔也用单数，表示“一个情况”，如：I was ignorant of one important circumstance.
environment 则主要指影响人、动植物行为或发展的客观环境，尤其是指自然环境和生态环境时，一般用其单数形式，如：Nowadays we are eager to enjoy a pleasant working environment. ‖ The development of industry has brought much damage to our environment.
surroundings 和 environment 含义接近，有时可替换，指在某一特定物周围的事物或社会环境，尤指生活环境。 surroundings 是复数名词，如：The buildings have been designed to blend in with their surroundings.
citizen, national, subject
这三个词都表示具有公民权（如选举权和永久居住权）的“公民”。
citizen 最为通用，指属于某个国家的合法公民，拥有这个国家赋予的一切公民权利和义务，如：The US government protects all American citizens living and working abroad. citizen 还可指一个城市的市民，如：He has now turned to be a citizen of New York.
national 是一个术语，专指居住在另一国家的某国公民，如：Every country should protect diplomats and foreign nationals.
subject 一般泛指君主制国家的国民、臣民，如：Every British person is a subject of the Queen.
city, town
city 意为“城市”、“都市”，多指现代的文化、政治、商业或娱乐中心，也可指古老的城市；在美国规定人口在8，000人以上的城市都可称为 city ，如：The city is an interesting place for journalists.而英国人用the City表示伦敦的金融商业区，如：I met Judy who was once my colleague in the City. city 有时指全城的人，这时常见的结构为The whole/ entire city turned out to do sth./ for sth.
town 多指大于village小于 city 的地方，常和country, countryside相对而言，如：Prices are higher in the town than in the country. town 比 city 意味广泛一些。英国英语喜欢用 town 代替 city ，甚至可以称为都市（ city ）的地方，英国人仍叫它 town ；著名的繁华的大都市则又可称之为metropolis。
class
class 的谓语动词可根据句义用单数或复数动词，作为班级集体时，用单数，指代班级全体成员时，应用复数，如：The class is on the playground. ‖ The class are very bright.
在表达“上课”的含义时，从教师方面应说：give/ meet one's class；从学生方面应说：attend a class/ sit in on a class，后一种说法在美国英语中常用。
clay, earth, mud, soil
这几个单词都与“土”有关。
clay 指黏土，可用于做陶器、雕塑等，如：Some pots are made of clay.
earth 除了表示“大地”之外也可指“土”，如：She is strong enough to carry several baskets of earth.
mud 多指“稀泥、湿土”，如：The wheels stuck in the mud and the car couldn't move.
soil 常指种植物的“土壤”，如：This soil is good for growing things.
climate, weather
climate 意为“气候”，指某一地区在一个时期内的一般气候情况，包括气温变化、降雨、降雪量等，前面可加不定冠词a，如：a mild/ temperate/ warm/ dry/ wet climate ‖ We are now facing the threat of global climate changes.
weather 意为“天气”，强调某地不同季节的或在某一特定时间内的具体天气变化情况，多指某一天或较短期间内的变化，如：good/ beautiful/ nice/ pleasant/ gloomy/ cloudy/ foggy/ hot/ humid/ wet/ rainy weather。短语in all weathers表示“不论在哪种天气里；不论环境好坏”，此时 weather 用复数形式，如：He remained a good friend in all weathers.
clothes, clothing, costume, dress, garment
这些词都指“衣服”。
clothes 指衣服的各个具体部分，如大衣、外套、内衣、鞋帽等，常用复数形式，如：The clothes do not fit me. ‖ How do you think they look in foreign clothes clothes 不能与数词连用，所以一般不说two clothes，但可说many clothes；可用形容词或名词作定语，如：sports/ working/ plain/ night/ school clothes。动词搭配有：change/ put on/ try on/ fold clothes。
clothing 是衣服的总称，集合名词，指一人所有的或所穿的全部衣物，包括内衣、外衣、长裤或短裤、帽子、手套等，如：In winter, children need warm clothing.指几件衣物时，可说articles of clothing。定语搭配可有：model/ winter/ protective/ shabby clothing ‖ custom-made/ tailor-made clothing。动词搭配有：put on/ wear clothing等。
costume 是一定地区、时间或团体中的人所穿的具有特点的服饰、装束，如：As Hamlet, the actor wore a costume of black velvet and a long gold chain around his neck.可与多个形容词搭配：an academic costume ‖ a bathing/ hunting costume ‖ a folk/ national/ native costume。
dress 可泛指衣服或服装，尤其是适合在正式场合穿着的各种衣服，制服或特殊服饰，如：Women usually pay more attention to dress than men do. ‖ Who is that girl in a white dress dress可用形容词或名词作定语，表示服装种类或性质，如：informal/ summer/ working/ evening/ full dress。
garment 指一件衣服，是文雅且正式的说法，可指衬衣、裤、裙、袍等各式衣着。可代替 clothing 作定语，尤其用于 clothing 的制作，如：a foundation garment ‖ He is in the garment industry.常用动词搭配有：wear/ sew/ mend a garment。
coincidence
coincidence 为动词coincide的名词形式，既可用于可数名词，也可用于不可数名词，如：By coincidence we both arrived at the same time.它的形容词搭配较为丰富，如：chance coincidence ‖ undesigned coincidence ‖ interesting/ odd/ sad/ startling/ strange coincidence等。后接介词between表示“两者之间一致”，如：Is there any coincidence between his opinions and your own
college, university
两个词都指“大学”，但仍有区别。
college 一般指综合性大学内部的学院。在英国，大学可由若干个专门命名的 college 组成，提供高等或专门教育。在美国， college 可以指独立的学院或大学，一般规模较小，学科也较单一。在日常用语中， college 泛指大学，指“上大学”时，前面不用定冠词the，如：In old days young people were deprived of their rights to go to college. ‖ My daughter is at college.
university 指综合性大学，下设几个到十几个不等的学院，如：There are several famous universities in Shanghai.在美国英语中，表示“上大学”用go to a（the）university，如：I did not want to go to a large university.英国英语中则用at university/ go to university，如：He is hoping to go to university next year.
comfort, ease, relief
这些词都指一种舒适平静的感觉或状况。
comfort 安慰，舒适。指由于需要和欲望得到满足，或由于消除了不愉快或干扰，而获得的心情的宁静和身体的舒适，常见于以下结构中：bring comfort to sb. ‖ derive comfort from sb./ sth. ‖ find comfort in sth.。也后可接动词不定式，如：It was a comfort to know that they were safe.词组in comfort表示“舒适地”，如：The doctor prescribes a pill that would allow him to sleep in comfort.
ease 悠闲，安心。指放松自然、无忧无虑而得到的心灵和身体的安宁，应用最广，常用词组有：at ease不拘束，自在，如：She gave us a smile that put us immediately at ease. ‖ ill at ease局促不安‖ with ease容易地，如：speak foreign language with ease。
relief 指由于痛苦、忧虑等的减轻或解除而获得的宽慰，如：“What a relief！”she said, as she took her tight shoes off.后可接动词不定式或that从句，如：It was a relief to get home.常用动词搭配有：bring/ feel/ seek/ find/ give relief。后接介词from表示“减轻…”；接介词to表示“对…的宽慰”。词组to sb's relief使某人宽慰的是…。
command, direction, instruction, order
这些词都表示令某人做某事的权威性陈述，或有见地的建议和指导。
在指上级发出的“指令”，尤其是将要执行的一个总体计划时， command 较普遍。另外，与 order 相比， command 更正式有力且有强制性，更具个人色彩，主语常是有权发出命令的人，如国王、军队指挥官等。常用动词搭配：give/ issue a command ‖ carry out/ execute a command ‖ We obeyed their command that prisoners be treated properly.常用词组有：at sb's command在某人指示下，如：At his command, we opened fire.
order 更倾向于指计划中的细节，可加不定式或that从句，如：They received the headquarters' command to attack at dawn, along with the special orders each unit was to follow.动词搭配有：give/ hand down/ issue an order ‖ carry out/ execute an order ‖ obey orders。定语搭配有：a direct/ secret/ verbal/ written order。介词搭配有：（be）under orders奉命（做某事），如：They were under orders to remain in the mountain. ‖ by order（of）根据…的命令，如：The book is banned by order of authorities。 order 后接同位语从句时，从句应用虚拟，如：Headquarters issued an order that the attack be resumed. order 后也常接动词不定式，如：an order to leave immediately。
direction 和 instruction 作“指示”、“说明”等解时，都极其正式，常用复数。但 instructions 较 directions 语气更委婉，指希望人们在执行较复杂活动时选择使用、参考的纲领或图式计划（如说明书、计划执行指令等），如：verbal/ written instructions ‖ The junior officers are awaiting the instructions of the company commander.常用动词搭配有：give/ issue/ follow/ leave/ await instructions。也可后接介词for表示“对某人的指示”，或接动词不定式引出指令的具体内容。词组on instructions按…命令。 instruction 也可作不可数名词，指“教育，教授”，如：advanced/ beginning instruction ‖ The university provides bilingual instruction in mathematics.常用动词搭配有：give/ conduct/ take instruction。
direction 作可数名词时，常用复数表示“用法说明”、“指示”等，常见动词搭配有：give/ issue/ follow directions。可接as to或介词about，如：directions about putting the parts together。也可接that引导的同位语从句，如：The old lady gave directions that her money be given to charity.还可接由不定代词或不定副词引出的不定式，如：directions how to get there。 direction 作不可数名词时，也指提出知识性的建议或指导，如：under sb's direction。
commerce, trade
commerce 是抽象名词，包括商业和贸易，尤指国际大宗贸易，如：Overseas commerce increased by 20 percent last month. ‖ Our country has grown rich because of its commerce with other nations.
trade 用于人们或国家之间进行实际的商品买卖或交换；此外，它还可指某一特定的行业，如服务业等，如：Trade between the two countries has greatly increased. ‖ He works in the retail/ building/ food/ tourist trade.
commodity, goods, merchandise, ware
四个词均可表示“商品”、“货物”。
commodity 尤指一个国家的主要出口“商品”，如我国的丝、茶，古巴的糖等，如：trade in commodities ‖ The most important trading commodities in this country are grain and cotton.常见搭配：a farm/ marketable commodity。
goods 表示“商品、货品”，是普通商业用语，是复数名词，不与数词连用，如不能说two goods，而只能说two pieces of goods ‖ two kinds of goods，也不能用单数的指示代词this/ that修饰，也不能用修饰不可数名词的much/ little来修饰，而应该用these/ those/ many等来修饰，如：All the shop's goods are protected by insurance.常见形容词搭配有：consumer/ durable/ manufactured goods。
merchandise 尤指大宗的“商品”，为不可数名词，如：a line of merchandise ‖ The merchandise is on display in the shop window.其动词形式相同，意为“买卖，推销、销售”等，如：Books can be merchandised like other products.常用动词搭配有：purchase/ order/ sell/ ship merchandise。形容词搭配有：assorted/ high quality merchandise。
ware 表示“商品，货物”，尤指小商贩的货物，用复数形式，如：Peddlers cry their wares aloud.常用动词搭配为hawk/ sell wares。此外， ware 也表示某种制成品、器皿，如：kitchen/ glass/ bamboo ware。
company, corporation, firm
虽都作“公司”讲，这些词含义均有区别。
company 指有若干人为了共同的目的（尤指商业）而组成的“公司”或“商社”，如：publishing/ shipping/ insurance company ‖ a limited liability company。
corporation 指由对企业的债务负有有限责任的合伙人组成的“公司”，它是一个法人，等同于a limited liability company，通常规模比 company 大，如：a multinational corporation ‖ BBC stands for British Broadcasting Corporation.英国英语中a public corporation指公营公司，公共法人。
firm 指两个或两个以上的合伙人经营的“商业公司”，根据英美法律， firm 不是法人，如：trading/ printing/ advertising/ design firm ‖ The firm's employees were expecting larger bonuses.
compassion, mercy, pity, sympathy
这组词都可用来表示“同情”，有时可互换。
compassion 较庄重，虽然也指对他人的不幸所产生的同情、怜悯之情，往往能产生一种想给予帮助或有所表示的愿望。常用动词搭配有：arouse compassion ‖ demonstrate/ display/ show compassion ‖ feel/ have compassion。常见形容词搭配有：profound/ deep/ strong compassion。常后接介词for或on表示同情的对象，如：The young doctor has great compassion for the patients.
mercy 指处于有利或优势地位的人对遭受不幸的人或弱者所表示的一种仁慈或怜悯。 mercy 还可指不将不幸带给本来应该受其惩罚的人，含有“宽恕”之意，如：They had no mercy on their prisoners. ‖ He showed great mercy to the defeated enemy.常见词组有：at the mercy of / at one's mercy听凭…的摆布，受制于‖ without mercy无情的。
pity 主要指对他人的不幸或麻烦（有时可能只是小小的不快）所产生的一种同情、怜悯或惋惜。常用动词搭配有：arouse pity ‖ feel/ show pity。后接介词for表示同情的对象，如：I felt no pity for them.也可用于句型it is a pity...表示某事令人难过或遗憾，如：It is a pity that you can't come to the party.常用词组有：take/ have pity on（sb.）同情（某人），如：He took pity on the homeless people. ‖ out of pity出于同情。
sympathy 强调的是与人共有的一种感情，尤指分享不幸、忧愁、痛苦等，但并不仅仅限于悲伤之情，如：People feel immediate sympathy for a man left alone with his children.常用动词搭配有：arouse/ feel/ capture/ stir up sympathy。常接介词for表示对某人的同情，如：feel/ have/ show sympathy for sb.。其它词组搭配还有：in sympathy with同情，赞同‖ out of sympathy出于同情。
在这一组词中，当指对别人的麻烦或不快具有惋惜、遗憾之情时只能用 pity ；强调想给予帮助时只能用 compassion ；强调主语处于主宰或强者的地位时只能用 mercy 。
correlate, counterpart, parallel
这些词指相似、互补和相当的两者之一。
correlate 相关，相互关联，意味着两者的联系比 counterpart 更密切，但不一定相像，而是互相依赖，并可能有因果关系，可接介词of，如：The poverty is an inevitable correlate of ghetto life. correlate 也常用作动词。
counterpart 最具有概括性，指相对应或具有相同功能的人或物，强调两者之间联系密切，在“相似”的意义上，它指完全一样或近似，如：to meet one's counterpart ‖ He had the first volume of the work but lacked its counterpart.后接介词in表示“在…的相对等的人或物”，如：The sales director phoned her counterpart in the other firm.后接介词of/ to表示“和…相对等的人或物”，如：Night is the counterpart of day。
parallel 平行；对比，比较；相似处。指较少的相像，无因果关系。也可指一些东西的相似，而不限于两者，如：The current birth control controversy has a parallel in the similar dispute in the medieval times.可接介词between/ among表示“在…中的类似事例”，接介词with表示“与…类似的事例”，其它常见搭配还有：without parallel（in history）。
complement, supplement
这两词均表示“补充（物）”意思。
complement 指它作为的补充物是必不可少的，加上它才使被补充的东西更完备，更完美，或指相配合的事物，凑成整体的两个之一。后一般接to/ of，如：A woman's intelligence and femininity are not antagonists but complements to each other. ‖ Travel can be an excellent complement to/ of one's education.
supplement 是一种独立性的补充，并不意味着它对所补充的东西是非有不可或者是相互依附的。作不可数名词用，也可表示报纸、杂志等的“增刊、副刊”。后接介词to引导补充对象，如：The night courses are a supplement to my regular course work. ‖ Today's newspaper contains the Sunday color supplement.
component, constituent, element, ingredient
这些词都指整体中的部分。
component 组成部分，元件。指有联结其它部分作用的一部分，但容易被从中分离出来，如：basic components ‖ an essential component ‖ Salt is a component of sea water.
constituent 和 element 都是更严格地指一个整体中基本的、不可缺少的、或内在固有的成分。
constituent 成分，组成要素，更常用来指整体发挥作用时不可缺少的部分，通常为了形成一个新的实体而彻底消失了自己的存在；反之，将它从整体中抽出则又会剧烈改变那较大的实体，如：The element hydrogen is a constituent of water.常用搭配有：an immediate/ ultimate constituent。
element 要素，基本组成部分，如：These are the elements of good writing.在化学中，这个词指基本的物质，如氧、汞和铜。
element 可用在短语中，如：in one's element适得其所，如：He's really in his element now. ‖ out of one's element不得其所。
ingredient 组成部分，成分，要素。指那些混合在一个无定形的整体中，没有发生变化的物质，也指在一个有机整体中那些因融和而改变了形态的部分，常用于指食品的成分，如：to combine ingredients in baking ‖ Turmeric（姜黄根）is an ingredient of curry powder.也可指要素，如：A novel contains all the ingredients of a good mystery story.
condition, situation, state
这一组词都可用来表示“情况”、“状况”。
condition 常用来表示人或物的外观、品质或工作状况，还可指人的健康状况；如：He is overweight and out of condition.常用形容词搭配有：bad/ poor/ terrible/ critical condition。可作不可数名词或可数名词单数使用，并常与介词in搭配，如：His car is in running condition. ‖ His clothes are in a shabby condition. conditions 复数形式通常指外界的“环境”和“状况”，如：The plants grow best in cool, damp conditions.
conditions 常见于与介词under/ in搭配的结构中，如：work under difficult conditions。
situation 表示“情况、形势”，多指在一个时期内某个地区的政治、军事、经济等的发展状况，特别是指危急存亡的状况，如：He found himself in a dangerous situation. ‖ We are discussing the situation in the Middle East when the professor walked in.
state 比 condition 更常用，是一般用语，指人或物在环境、外表、心灵、健康等方面的“情况，状态”，如：He was in a state of permanent depression. ‖ The building is in a bad state of repair.
conflict, friction, strife
这三个词都表示由于意见的不和超出一定范围而采取的带有不良企图的甚至敌对的行动。
conflict 斗争；冲突，争执，论战。是非常激烈的冲突，常指因言语不和而诉诸武力，如：a conflict of interests ‖ The conflict between the two parties passed from controversy to petty wars.后可加介词between/among/with等引出冲突方；接介词about/over表达“关于…的冲突”。词组有：in（a）conflict with与…不一致，与…冲突，如：Their stories are in conflict with each other。
friction 摩擦；矛盾，冲突。是个人或团体之间始终不断的不和，伴有经常性的冲突，常跟介词between/among，如：Friction between labor and management can result in mutual recriminations, strikes and lock-outs.
strife 冲突，纠纷，争吵。是双方因观点上的互不相让，而使争吵带有敌意，如：The tactics of the cold war are resorted to in the strife between contending power blocs.可接介词between/among/in；常用的动词搭配有：cause/create a strife；常见形容词搭配有：industrial/political/communal/internal strife。
consequence, effect, result
这组词均可表示“结果”。
consequence 比 result 更正式，常用复数形式，所表示的因果关系不如 effect 那么直接，指由于某事而产生的后果，往往指不良的后果，如：Before you do anything you should always consider the consequences.常用词组有：as a consequence因此，结果‖ in consequence因此，结果‖ in consequence of因…之故。
effect 常译作“效果”、“作用”或“影响”，但也可表示“结果”。在表示“结果”时，强调事物的因果关系，指由于某种原因产生的直接结果，如：There is no effect without a cause.可用在to...effect的结构中表示“有…的结果”，如：to good/no/little effect。常见的词组有of no effects，意为“毫无作用”，如：All our efforts were of no effects.
result 是这组词中最常用的，指某行动、事态终了时的最后结果，如：The fire was the result of carelessness.常用词组有：as a result（of）因此，结果‖ in result结果，因此‖ in the result作为结果，到后来‖ without result毫无结果的，徒劳地。
从下面一句可以看出以上三个词的区别：The effect of the accident was the concussion of his brain；the consequence, a rapid deterioration in his health and the result, his early death.
contempt, disdain, scorn
这三个词都有“看不起”、“轻蔑”的意思，都可接介词for表示对某事或某人的鄙视。
contempt 的语义最强，兼有憎恨、厌恶、极端不赞成的含义，如：We have nothing but contempt for such conduct. contempt 还可用于词组in contempt，如：Traitors have always been held in contempt.
disdain 指看不起比自己卑贱、低微的事物，带有一种不屑一顾的态度，隐含自视甚高或不愿屈尊的意思，如：We feel disdained for a person who cheats. disdain 可用于词组with disdain，如：She viewed his effort with disdain.
scorn 表示“藐视、看不起”，带有憎恶和愤怒的意思，语气虽不如 contempt 强烈，也不一定带有自视甚高的意味，但强调一种拒斥的情感，如：Her eyes were full of scorn.
controversy, discord
两词均指长时间的意见不合，它可以用说理的方法表达，也可用敌对争吵的方法表达。
controversy 公开辩论，论战。用来指组织团体之间如民族、政党或宗教团体之间观点的不和，后接介词about/over表示“对…的论战”，如：There is controversy over the decentralization of government.接between表示“…之间的争论”；接with表示“与…的争论”。常用的动词搭配有：arouse/cause/stir up/settle a controversy。形容词搭配有：a bitter/furious/heated/lively controversy。
discord 不和，纷争。指 controversy 发展到了令人不愉快的程度，隐含着很难达成协议的意思，如：marital/family discord。常用的动词搭配：arouse/generate/stir up a discord。后接介词among/between表示“…之间不协调”，如：The discord between branches of a family often lasts for generations.接in表示“在…内的不和”，如：discord in one's family relationships。
copy, duplicate, model, reproduction
这些词都指与原物完全相同或极接近于原物的再制品。
copy 复制品；一本，一份。是有概括性的词，可适用于精确或非精确的仿制品。如：a backup copy ‖ a true copy ‖ a presentation copy ‖ Manufacturers mass-produce copies of Paris fashions.动词搭配有：make/Xerox/print a copy。
duplicate 相似物，复制品。强调复制品的精确度。也常接介词of，如：He is applying for a duplicate of his lost passport.动词搭配make a duplicate；固定搭配in duplicate一式两份。
model 模型；设计；范例。指图解上的相似，经常是缩小的规模，可能先于原物的制造而产生。也可接介词of/for，如：This is a desk-top model of the proposed supersonic airliner ‖ a model for...。此外， model 也常用作名词性定语，如：a model plane ‖ a model husband。
reproduction 复制（品），重现，在精确程度上是较模糊的，有时强调与原物详尽的类似，如：a high-fidelity reproduction ‖ a stereophonic reproduction。也常接介词of，如：It is a remarkably skilful reproduction of the original painting.也可指繁殖，如：animal/human/plant reproduction。
cord, rope, string
这组词都表示“绳子”。
cord 是比 rope 细的绞股状细绳，如：He tied a parcel with a cord.可用复数表示束缚，影响，如：The very sight of the island had relaxed the cords of discipline.
rope 指坚固的绳子，比 cord 粗而结实，如：We tied his feet with a rope.词组有：give sb. enough rope放任某人‖ the ropes秘诀、内幕‖ show sb. the ropes向某人指点窍门‖ learn the ropes摸到窍门。
string 比 cord 更细，如：a ball of string。常用短语a string of表示“一串，一系列”等，如：a string of pearls/beads/misfortunes/complaints。 string 的复数形式可用来表示附带条件，如：We are prepared to lend the money with no strings attached.
corps, corpse
这两个名词由于拼法相近，很易引起混淆。
corps 表示“军队”、“团体”，单数与复数同形，都是 corps ，但读音不同，单数念［k ：］，复数念［k ：z］，如：Marine Corps ‖ an air corps ‖ the diplomatic corps。
corpse 表示“尸体”的意思，一般指人的尸体，念［k ：ps］，如果说动物的尸体，则常用carcass，如：The lifeless corpse of the accident lay on the street.
council, counsel
这两个词的词形和读音很相像，常被混淆，实际上它们的意思和用法都不同。
council 意思是市、镇等地方政府的“会议”或“议会”，像meeting, family等词一样，它的谓语动词可以是单数或复数，如：The council have decided to plant more trees.
counsel 既可用作名词，又可用作动词，表示“商议”、“建议”、“忠告”，如：The young man took counsel from his experienced father and won the competition.词组take counsel with sb.指与某人商议，如：You may take counsel with our group at any time you feel free. counsel 也可作“法律顾问”解，此时 counsel 单复数同形，如：Both parties were represented by counsel.
country, land, nation, state
这组词都表示“国家”、“国土”，但侧重点有所不同。
country 侧重于“疆土”，是一般用语，指一个国家或民族所拥有的土地、疆域，也可以指居住在某一特定地区的人，前加定冠词，如：I will defend my country to the last drop of my blood. ‖ The rich benefited from the reforms, not the country as a whole.
land 指“国家”、“国土”，多为文学或含有感情的用语，如：The famous writer has lived in many lands.
nation 强调政治上的一致，即在一个政府领导下的人民、国土、主权等方面组成的一个整体概念。the nation表示“一国国民”，如：The president spoke on radio to the nation on New Year's Day.
state 侧重政权，多用于指一个国家的政府（而不是具体的人民或民族），也用来表示高度组织起来并有中央政府的国家；还可用来表示一个联邦共和国里单独的政治单位，如：The law protects the freedom of the individual and security of the state.强调“政治实体”时，常大写首字母S，如：Education is provided by the State.另外在美国、澳大利亚等国，the state 通常指某个州，而非整个政府，如：The southern states of the US are suffering from the flood.
courage, guts, nerve, resolution
这些词表示不惧困难、无畏艰险的、坚定的态度。
courage 勇气，胆量。是最普通的词，笼统地包含了其余词的含义，表示在重压和逆境中无所畏惧的精神和勇于奋斗的进取心， courage 还可用来表示对道义或正义感的坚定信念。前面可加动词show/have等，后常跟不定式动词，如：He showed great courage in battle.常用词组有：pluck up one's courage鼓起勇气，如：He plucked up his courage and asked her to marry him. ‖ take courage to do做…需要勇气，如：It takes courage to tell the truth.
guts 是俚语，指勇气与决心等，表示不害怕、胆大或一种冒昧的举动，常用复数形式the guts表示，如：The policeman showed real guts by facing the bank robbers unarmed. ‖ She hasn't got the guts to leave her husband.词组hate sb's guts指对某人恨之入骨。
nerve 也可用来指胆量、勇气，强调某人在冒着一定风险的情况下，沉着坚定地去完成任务，如：lose/regain one's nerve ‖ do sth. with a lot of nerve。有时也表示在社交中的一种傲慢和粗鲁。常用词组have the nerve to do，表示“厚着脸皮，有胆量”，如：He had a lot of nerve to ask her the day before the dance.
resolution 表示在对峙时立场坚定，忠实信仰，始终如一，以及对事业的毫不动摇的牺牲精神。强调抛开一切犹豫和不安来达到目的。常用动词搭配有：show great resolution ‖ make/form/take a resolution。可用于with...resolution的结构中，如：He ran into the burning house with the resolution despite the terror that possessed him.
creed, doctrine
这两个词表示有众多信徒共同信奉的教条。
creed 指“信条”、“教义”，即所有信徒都要遵守的简明阐述的、最基本的原则，如：people of all colors and creeds ‖ What is your political creed 动词搭配有：adhere to a creed；形容词搭配有：a political/religious creed。后可接that从句，如：It is our creed that we must help the poor.
doctrine 教义，主义，学说，信条。它是对复杂的、广泛的理论的一个短小精悍的总结，如：Catholic doctrine ‖ Marxist doctrine ‖ They are listening to the doctrine of the resurrection.动词搭配有：preach/cling to a doctrine；形容词搭配有：a basic/religious doctrine；也可接that从句，如：It is their basic doctrine that nothing should interfere with the free trade market.
crime, offence, sin
这些词都指“罪行”或“罪孽”。
crime 犯罪，或严重的错误行为，后可接不定式或that从句，如：It is a crime that so many people go to bed hungry. ‖ The police detect and prevent crime.常用动词搭配为commit a crime。
offence 也指违反某种法律条款并会受到惩处的犯罪行为，如：a minor offence ‖ a capital offence ‖ Because it was his first offence, the punishment wasn't severe.此外 offence 还可指使人感觉不安和尴尬的行为，如：I'm sure he didn't mean to cause offence.后接介词against表示“违反…的罪行”；也可接介词to表示“使人不悦或生气的事物”，如：The new shopping center is an offence to the eye.常用词组搭配有：give/cause offence to sb.对某人造成伤害，令某人尴尬不安‖ take offence at sth.觉得受到…的伤害。
sin 常作为宗教术语，指触犯上帝的意志或违背宗教戒律的罪恶，也可指违背道义的罪行，但不一定触犯法律，如：A worker's paradise would emerge once the sin of ownership was extinguished. ‖ Roman Catholics confess their sins to their priests.
criterion, standard
这两个词都指“标准”。
criterion 较为正式，指批评、判断人行为或事物优劣的准则，其复数形式为criteria或criterions，如：Success in making money is not the criterion of success in life. ‖ What criterion do you use when judging a student's work
standard 是常用词，指衡量事物达到一定的重量、高度、长度、质量、纯度等规格，它指的是客观的、公正的标准或基准，如：This fight for better living standards is on the top of the agenda of people.常用动词搭配有：establish/set/adhere to/maintain/lower/raise a standard。
crown, summit, top
这三个词均指“顶点”或“顶部”。
crown 多指圆形物的顶部、顶端，如头顶、帽顶等。用于比喻意义时，指完美的境地，或某事物的最佳状态或质量，如：The crown of his head is completely bald. ‖ A Nobel Prize is the crown of success.
submit 指顶点、绝顶，尤指山顶。指山顶时，单独使用，前面加定冠词the，其后不用hill或mountain来说明，如：We reached the summit at noon. summit 还常用于比喻意义，指一个人事业的顶峰，如：At last he attained the summit of his ambition. summit 还可指两国或多国领导人参加的讨论重要事务的官方会议，即“峰会，首脑会议”，如：Western leaders are gathering for this week's Ottawa summit in Canada.
top 是常用词，指某物的最高部分或最高顶，也可形容一个人的事业或职位达到顶峰状态，如：He filled my glass to the top. ‖ She was at the top of her career after being elected senator.
custom, habit, practice
这三个词都表示人们常做的事，即“风俗”、“习惯”。
custom 一般指一个社会或许多人长时期形成的风俗，作可数或不可数名词，如：a local/tribal custom ‖ Social customs vary greatly from country to country.常见动词搭配有：establish/cherish/practice/observe a custom，后也可接不定式或that从句。有时， custom 也可以指个人习惯，但使用较少，常用句型为It is sb's custom to do sth.，如：It is my custom to go to France for my holiday.
habit 通常指个人的、由于经常重复而成自然的习惯，包括好与坏的癖、瘾等，作可数或不可数名词，如：The boy is in the habit of late rising.可用good/nasty等不同形容词修饰，如：It is a good habit to eat slowly.常见词组有：be in the habit of doing sth.有做某事的习惯‖ do sth. out of habit出于习惯做某事‖ make a habit of doing sth.使做某事成为习惯‖ by force of habit受习惯驱使。
practice 指某人选定或约定俗成的做某事的习惯作法，如：It is not the usual practice for shops to stay open after 6 o'clock.常用词组make a practice of sth.表示“有…的习惯”。

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